Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules
Background: Anthrax is a serious disease caused by <i>Bacillus anthracis</i> (<i>B. anthracis</i>) with a very high mortality when the spores of <i>B. anthracis</i> are inhaled (inhalational anthrax). Aerosolized <i>B. anthracis</i> spores can be used...
Saved in:
| Main Authors: | , |
|---|---|
| Format: | Article |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
MDPI AG
2025-01-01
|
| Series: | Vaccines |
| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/13/1/88 |
| Tags: |
Add Tag
No Tags, Be the first to tag this record!
|
| _version_ | 1832587399888109568 |
|---|---|
| author | Lisa M. James Apostolos P. Georgopoulos |
| author_facet | Lisa M. James Apostolos P. Georgopoulos |
| author_sort | Lisa M. James |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Background: Anthrax is a serious disease caused by <i>Bacillus anthracis</i> (<i>B. anthracis</i>) with a very high mortality when the spores of <i>B. anthracis</i> are inhaled (inhalational anthrax). Aerosolized <i>B. anthracis</i> spores can be used as a deadly bioweapon. Vaccination against anthrax is the only effective preventive measure and, hence, the anthrax vaccine was administered to United States (and other) troops during the 1990–91 Gulf War. However, the anthrax vaccine is not harmless, and the anthrax vaccination has been linked to the occurrence and severity of Gulf War Illness (GWI), a debilitating Chronic Multisymptom Illness (CMI). We hypothesized that this is partly due to the combination of two factors, namely (a) the cytotoxicity of the antigen (anthrax Protective Antigen, PA) contained in the vaccine, and (b) the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) genotype of susceptible vaccinees, reducing their ability to make antibodies against the cytotoxic PA. Method: Here, we tested this hypothesis by determining the association between severity of GWI symptoms in 458 GW veterans and the overall strength of the binding affinity of the PA epitopes to the specific six Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Class II alleles carried by each individual (two of each of the HLA-II genes: DPB1, DQB1, DRB1), responsible for initiating the process of antibody production in otherwise immunocompetent individuals, estimated in silico. Results: We found that the severity of GWI symptomatology was negatively and significantly correlated with the strength of the predicted binding affinity of PA peptides to HLA-II molecules (<inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>−</mo><mn>0.356</mn><mo>,</mo><mo> </mo><mi>p</mi><mo><</mo><mn>0.001</mn><mo>)</mo></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>; the stronger the overall binding affinity, the weaker the symptoms. Since the binding of a peptide to an HLA-II molecule is the first and necessary step in initiating the production of antibodies, the findings above support our hypothesis that the severity of GWI symptomatology is partly due to a lack of HLA-II protection. Conclusions: Reduced HLA protection against the toxic anthrax vaccine may underlie GWI. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-f6dc822c3e3549f4a2e4b240471d23c5 |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 2076-393X |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
| record_format | Article |
| series | Vaccines |
| spelling | doaj-art-f6dc822c3e3549f4a2e4b240471d23c52025-01-24T13:51:54ZengMDPI AGVaccines2076-393X2025-01-011318810.3390/vaccines13010088Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II MoleculesLisa M. James0Apostolos P. Georgopoulos1The GWI and HLA Research Groups, Brain Sciences Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN 55417, USAThe GWI and HLA Research Groups, Brain Sciences Center, Department of Veterans Affairs Health Care System, Minneapolis, MN 55417, USABackground: Anthrax is a serious disease caused by <i>Bacillus anthracis</i> (<i>B. anthracis</i>) with a very high mortality when the spores of <i>B. anthracis</i> are inhaled (inhalational anthrax). Aerosolized <i>B. anthracis</i> spores can be used as a deadly bioweapon. Vaccination against anthrax is the only effective preventive measure and, hence, the anthrax vaccine was administered to United States (and other) troops during the 1990–91 Gulf War. However, the anthrax vaccine is not harmless, and the anthrax vaccination has been linked to the occurrence and severity of Gulf War Illness (GWI), a debilitating Chronic Multisymptom Illness (CMI). We hypothesized that this is partly due to the combination of two factors, namely (a) the cytotoxicity of the antigen (anthrax Protective Antigen, PA) contained in the vaccine, and (b) the Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) genotype of susceptible vaccinees, reducing their ability to make antibodies against the cytotoxic PA. Method: Here, we tested this hypothesis by determining the association between severity of GWI symptoms in 458 GW veterans and the overall strength of the binding affinity of the PA epitopes to the specific six Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) Class II alleles carried by each individual (two of each of the HLA-II genes: DPB1, DQB1, DRB1), responsible for initiating the process of antibody production in otherwise immunocompetent individuals, estimated in silico. Results: We found that the severity of GWI symptomatology was negatively and significantly correlated with the strength of the predicted binding affinity of PA peptides to HLA-II molecules (<inline-formula><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" display="inline"><semantics><mrow><mi>r</mi><mo>=</mo><mo>−</mo><mn>0.356</mn><mo>,</mo><mo> </mo><mi>p</mi><mo><</mo><mn>0.001</mn><mo>)</mo></mrow></semantics></math></inline-formula>; the stronger the overall binding affinity, the weaker the symptoms. Since the binding of a peptide to an HLA-II molecule is the first and necessary step in initiating the production of antibodies, the findings above support our hypothesis that the severity of GWI symptomatology is partly due to a lack of HLA-II protection. Conclusions: Reduced HLA protection against the toxic anthrax vaccine may underlie GWI.https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/13/1/88anthrax vaccinationGulf War IllnessHuman Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) |
| spellingShingle | Lisa M. James Apostolos P. Georgopoulos Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules Vaccines anthrax vaccination Gulf War Illness Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) |
| title | Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules |
| title_full | Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules |
| title_fullStr | Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules |
| title_full_unstemmed | Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules |
| title_short | Negative Association of Gulf War Illness Symptomatology with Predicted Binding Affinity of Anthrax Vaccine Antigen to Human Leukocyte (HLA) Class II Molecules |
| title_sort | negative association of gulf war illness symptomatology with predicted binding affinity of anthrax vaccine antigen to human leukocyte hla class ii molecules |
| topic | anthrax vaccination Gulf War Illness Human Leukocyte Antigen (HLA) |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2076-393X/13/1/88 |
| work_keys_str_mv | AT lisamjames negativeassociationofgulfwarillnesssymptomatologywithpredictedbindingaffinityofanthraxvaccineantigentohumanleukocytehlaclassiimolecules AT apostolospgeorgopoulos negativeassociationofgulfwarillnesssymptomatologywithpredictedbindingaffinityofanthraxvaccineantigentohumanleukocytehlaclassiimolecules |