Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024

Long-Term Trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and Trace Elements in Ambient Air: Environmental and Health Risks from 2020 to 2024

This study aimed to assess the long-term trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and hazardous trace elements in Makkah from 2020 to 2024, evaluating seasonal variations, health risks, and potential mitigation strategies. The results indicated that the PM<sub>10<...

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Bibliographic Details
Main Authors: Heba M. Adly, Saleh A. K. Saleh
Format: Article
Language:English
Published: MDPI AG 2025-04-01
Series:Atmosphere
Subjects:
air pollution
fine particulate matter (PM<sub>2.5</sub>)
coarse particulate matter (PM<sub>10</sub>)
trace elements
health impacts
Online Access:https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/4/415
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Summary:This study aimed to assess the long-term trends in PM<sub>10</sub>, PM<sub>2.5</sub>, and hazardous trace elements in Makkah from 2020 to 2024, evaluating seasonal variations, health risks, and potential mitigation strategies. The results indicated that the PM<sub>10</sub> concentrations ranged from a minimum of 127.7 ± 14.2 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2020) to a maximum of 138.3 ± 15.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2024), while PM<sub>2.5</sub> levels varied between 100.7 ± 18.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and 109.8 ± 21.3 µg/m<sup>3</sup>. A seasonal analysis showed the highest PM<sub>10</sub> and PM<sub>2.5</sub> levels during winter (147.8 ± 16.4 µg/m<sup>3</sup> and 119.5 ± 21.7 µg/m<sup>3</sup> in 2024, respectively), coinciding with lower wind speeds and reduced dispersion. Among the nine trace elements analyzed, Cr VI exhibited the highest increase from 0.008 ± 0.001 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2020) to 0.012 ± 0.001 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (2024), while Cd and Ni also rose significantly. The excess cancer risk (ECR) associated with these pollutants exceeded the recommended threshold, with a strong correlation between PM<sub>10</sub> and ECR (r = 0.85–0.93, <i>p</i> < 0.01). These findings highlight the need for enhanced air quality monitoring and sustainable urban planning. Future research should focus on identifying the dominant pollution sources and assessing the long-term health impacts to support evidence-based air quality management in Makkah.
ISSN:2073-4433

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