Mendiante et orgueilleuse ?  L’université d’al-Azhar et l’enseignement supérieur égyptien (1860-1930) by Thomas Raineau

“…Since al-Azhar was unable to fulfil the aspiration of an increasing part of the society for “modern” disciplines and methods, its graduates were confronted to a rising competition with those of institutions such as Dâr al-‘Ulûm or the School of the Cadis, for obtaining jobs of teachers or magistrates. …”
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