Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis
Background: In May 2019, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia introduced a city-wide raw coal ban (RCB) to improve ambient air quality. Air pollution exposure particularly affects child health and is associated with acute respiratory disease. We assessed the effects of the RCB on air quality and child respiratory...
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2025-01-01
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| author | Emma Dickinson-Craig Terkhen Turbat Karla Hemming Francis D. Pope Suzanne E. Bartington Suvdaa Anjaa Sumiya Davaa Rosie Day Damdindorj Boldbaatar Chimedsuren Ochir David Warburton Graham Neil Thomas Jargalsaikhan Badarch Semira Manaseki-Holland |
| author_facet | Emma Dickinson-Craig Terkhen Turbat Karla Hemming Francis D. Pope Suzanne E. Bartington Suvdaa Anjaa Sumiya Davaa Rosie Day Damdindorj Boldbaatar Chimedsuren Ochir David Warburton Graham Neil Thomas Jargalsaikhan Badarch Semira Manaseki-Holland |
| author_sort | Emma Dickinson-Craig |
| collection | DOAJ |
| description | Background: In May 2019, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia introduced a city-wide raw coal ban (RCB) to improve ambient air quality. Air pollution exposure particularly affects child health and is associated with acute respiratory disease. We assessed the effects of the RCB on air quality and child respiratory health. Methods: An interrupted time-series analysis was conducted on air quality (PM<sub>2.5</sub>, PM<sub>10</sub>, SO<sub>2</sub>, CO) and child (<5 y) severe acute respiratory disease, adjusting for coinciding co-events (COVID-19) where necessary. The subgroup analysis focussed on peak pollution months (November–February). Results: PM<sub>10</sub> significantly decreased by −34.3 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI −62.9, −5.8, <i>p</i> = 0.02) and PM<sub>2.5</sub> by −17.1 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI −26.3, −7.9, <i>p</i> < 0.01), immediately post-intervention. The subgroup analysis showed SO<sub>2</sub> increased by 81.6 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI 45.2, 117.9, <i>p</i> < 0.01) in the first month and by 4.9 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI 2.6, 7.3, <i>p</i> < 0.01) monthly afterwards. CO increased by 56.1 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI 13.5, 98.7, <i>p</i> = 0.01). Child respiratory health showed no significant change after adjusting for the COVID-19 effect. Discussion: The RCB successfully reduced key pollutants (PM), almost instantly. Long-term increases in SO<sub>2</sub> and CO and limited health effects highlight the need for further air quality improvements. Outputs from Mongolia’s continuous air quality mitigation efforts provide useful insights for countries facing similar challenges. |
| format | Article |
| id | doaj-art-bbbee051295340138a0183648addad9e |
| institution | Kabale University |
| issn | 2073-4433 |
| language | English |
| publishDate | 2025-01-01 |
| publisher | MDPI AG |
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| series | Atmosphere |
| spelling | doaj-art-bbbee051295340138a0183648addad9e2025-01-24T13:21:49ZengMDPI AGAtmosphere2073-44332025-01-011614610.3390/atmos16010046Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series AnalysisEmma Dickinson-Craig0Terkhen Turbat1Karla Hemming2Francis D. Pope3Suzanne E. Bartington4Suvdaa Anjaa5Sumiya Davaa6Rosie Day7Damdindorj Boldbaatar8Chimedsuren Ochir9David Warburton10Graham Neil Thomas11Jargalsaikhan Badarch12Semira Manaseki-Holland13Institute for Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKMongolian National University of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 14210, MongoliaInstitute for Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKSchool of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKInstitute for Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKCapital’s Enerel Hospital, Ulaanbaatar 14210, MongoliaCentre for Health Development Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar 210648, MongoliaSchool of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKMongolian National University of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 14210, MongoliaMongolian National University of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 14210, MongoliaThe Saban Research Institute, Children’s Hospital Los Angeles, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90027, USAInstitute for Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKMongolian National University of Medical Sciences, Ulaanbaatar 14210, MongoliaInstitute for Applied Health Research, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT, UKBackground: In May 2019, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia introduced a city-wide raw coal ban (RCB) to improve ambient air quality. Air pollution exposure particularly affects child health and is associated with acute respiratory disease. We assessed the effects of the RCB on air quality and child respiratory health. Methods: An interrupted time-series analysis was conducted on air quality (PM<sub>2.5</sub>, PM<sub>10</sub>, SO<sub>2</sub>, CO) and child (<5 y) severe acute respiratory disease, adjusting for coinciding co-events (COVID-19) where necessary. The subgroup analysis focussed on peak pollution months (November–February). Results: PM<sub>10</sub> significantly decreased by −34.3 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI −62.9, −5.8, <i>p</i> = 0.02) and PM<sub>2.5</sub> by −17.1 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI −26.3, −7.9, <i>p</i> < 0.01), immediately post-intervention. The subgroup analysis showed SO<sub>2</sub> increased by 81.6 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI 45.2, 117.9, <i>p</i> < 0.01) in the first month and by 4.9 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI 2.6, 7.3, <i>p</i> < 0.01) monthly afterwards. CO increased by 56.1 µg/m<sup>3</sup> (95% CI 13.5, 98.7, <i>p</i> = 0.01). Child respiratory health showed no significant change after adjusting for the COVID-19 effect. Discussion: The RCB successfully reduced key pollutants (PM), almost instantly. Long-term increases in SO<sub>2</sub> and CO and limited health effects highlight the need for further air quality improvements. Outputs from Mongolia’s continuous air quality mitigation efforts provide useful insights for countries facing similar challenges.https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/1/46air qualityair pollution interventionchild healthrespiratory healthCOVID-19 |
| spellingShingle | Emma Dickinson-Craig Terkhen Turbat Karla Hemming Francis D. Pope Suzanne E. Bartington Suvdaa Anjaa Sumiya Davaa Rosie Day Damdindorj Boldbaatar Chimedsuren Ochir David Warburton Graham Neil Thomas Jargalsaikhan Badarch Semira Manaseki-Holland Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis Atmosphere air quality air pollution intervention child health respiratory health COVID-19 |
| title | Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis |
| title_full | Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis |
| title_fullStr | Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis |
| title_full_unstemmed | Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis |
| title_short | Improving Air Quality and Childhood Respiratory Health in Mongolia: The Impact of the Raw Coal Ban and COVID-19 Restrictions—An Interrupted Time-Series Analysis |
| title_sort | improving air quality and childhood respiratory health in mongolia the impact of the raw coal ban and covid 19 restrictions an interrupted time series analysis |
| topic | air quality air pollution intervention child health respiratory health COVID-19 |
| url | https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4433/16/1/46 |
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